Records (419)
People, texts, places, events, controversies, councils, and libraries added for the live atlas. A row that already existed keeps its older page and is marked here.
controversy · undated
RebaptismDispute (255-257) over whether those baptized by schismatics must be rebaptized: Cyprian said yes, Stephen of Rome said no.
controversy · undated
AdoptionismTeaching that Jesus was a man adopted as Son of God, associated with Theodotus and Paul of Samosata.
controversy · undated
Schism of AntiochRival bishops of Antioch (360s-410s) divided pro-Nicene Christians and strained relations with Rome and Alexandria.
controversy · low
Luciferians (Christian faction)Rigorist followers of Lucifer of Cagliari who refused reconciliation with compromisers after 362.
controversy · undated
Jovinian controversyMonk Jovinian argued that virginity was not superior to marriage; condemned at Rome and Milan (c. 390-393) and attacked by Jerome.
controversy · undated
Helvidius and the perpetual-virginity debateHelvidius argued Mary had other children after Jesus; Jerome's reply shaped the doctrine of perpetual virginity.
controversy · high
Acacian schismBreak between Rome and Constantinople over the Henotikon and Patriarch Acacius, healed under Justin I in 519.
controversy · undated
TheopaschismDispute over the formula 'one of the Trinity suffered in the flesh', adopted by Justinian and Constantinople II.
controversy · undated
AphthartodocetaeSplit among Miaphysites over whether Christ's body was incorruptible before the resurrection.
controversy · undated
TritheismAccusation against John Philoponus and others that their account of the Trinity made three gods.
controversy · undated
Easter controversyDispute between Irish and Roman methods of dating Easter, ending in Northumbria at Whitby (664).
controversy · undated
Semi-PelagianismLater label for Gallic monks' views on grace and free will, opposed by Prosper and settled at Orange (529).
controversy · undated
Synoptic problemHow Mark, Matthew and Luke are related; most scholars hold Markan priority, with debate between the Q hypothesis and Farrer-type models.
controversy · undated
Q sourceHypothetical sayings source behind material shared by Matthew and Luke; widely used but challenged by Goodacre and others.
controversy · undated
Christ myth theoryMinority view that Jesus did not exist as a historical person; nearly all specialists in antiquity reject it (see Ehrman 2012), while Carrier and Price defend it.
controversy · undated
Historicity of JesusScholarly consensus that Jesus of Nazareth existed, based on Paul's letters, the gospels and Josephus and Tacitus; what can be known about him remains debated.
controversy · undated
Quest for the historical JesusThree-century effort to reconstruct the historical Jesus, from Reimarus and Schweitzer to the 'Third Quest' emphasizing his Jewish context.
controversy · undated
Josephus on JesusThe Jesus passage in Antiquities 18 is widely judged partly interpolated; most scholars think a shorter original existed, a minority judge it wholly inserted.
controversy · undated
Bauer thesisBauer (1934) argued that 'heresy' was often earlier than 'orthodoxy' in many regions; influential and much debated.
controversy · undated
Gnosticism as a categoryWilliams (1996) and King (2003) argued 'Gnosticism' is a modern construct; others (Brakke, Layton) keep a narrower 'Gnostic' school.
controversy · undated
Split of Christianity and JudaismWhen and how Christianity and Judaism became separate religions; recent work sees a long, uneven process rather than a single break.
controversy · undated
Authorship of the Pauline epistlesSeven letters are almost universally held to be Paul's; Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians and especially the Pastorals are widely judged pseudonymous.
controversy · undated
Dating the Gospel of ThomasDebate over whether Thomas preserves independent early sayings (1st c.) or depends on the Synoptics (2nd c.).
controversy · undated
Secret Mark / Mar Saba letter authenticity debateMorton Smith's 1958 find of a letter of Clement quoting a longer Mark; scholars remain divided between authenticity and modern forgery.
controversy · low
Gospel of Jesus' WifePapyrus fragment announced in 2012; by 2016 investigations showed it was very probably a modern forgery.
controversy · undated
Talpiot Tomb1980 Jerusalem tomb whose ossuary names led to 2007 claims it was Jesus' family tomb; most archaeologists reject the claim.
controversy · undated
James OssuaryOssuary announced 2002; a forgery trial ended in acquittal (2012) but many scholars still doubt the 'brother of Jesus' phrase.
controversy · undated
Revisionist school of Islamic studies1970s skepticism (Wansbrough, Crone and Cook) about the Islamic tradition's account of origins; later manuscript finds pushed many back toward an early Qur'an text.
controversy · undated
Jewish-Christian survival and the Qur'anHypothesis that Jewish-Christian groups survived in Arabia and shaped Qur'anic Christology; supported by some, strongly disputed by others (e.g., Griffith).
controversy · undated
Did Constantine or Nicaea choose the Bible?Popular claim that Nicaea chose the canon; the council's records say nothing about the canon, which formed gradually.
council · high
Synod of Rome (313)Synod under Bishop Miltiades, convened at Constantine's request, which upheld Caecilian against the Donatists.
council · undated
Synod of Milan (355)Synod where Constantius II pressured western bishops to condemn Athanasius; dissenters were exiled.
council · high
Council of Rome (382)Synod under Damasus, linked by later tradition (Decretum Gelasianum) to a canon list; the attribution is debated.
council · high
Synod of HippoAfrican council whose canon list (preserved via Carthage 397) matches the modern Catholic Old and New Testament.
council · high
Synod of the OakSynod near Chalcedon where Theophilus of Alexandria engineered John Chrysostom's deposition.
council · high
First Council of ToledoIberian synod that dealt with Priscillianist bishops; later tradition linked it to the Filioque.
council · undated
Synod of Markabta (424)Persian synod declaring the Catholicos answerable to no western patriarch.
council · high
Council of Orange (529)Gallic synod affirming a moderate Augustinian teaching on grace against 'semi-Pelagian' views.
council · high
Council of Constantinople (536)Synod under Patriarch Menas that condemned Anthimus, Severus and other Miaphysite leaders.
council · high
Synod of WhitbyNorthumbrian synod (664) where King Oswiu adopted the Roman Easter reckoning over the Irish one; just after the Atlas range.
council · high
Quinisext CouncilCanon-making council (692) completing Constantinople II and III; its canons are still cited in Orthodox law.
council · high
Fourth Council of ToledoVisigothic council presided over by Isidore of Seville, regulating liturgy and kingship.
council · undated
Council of JamniaOnce-popular theory of a rabbinic council at Yavneh (c. 90) closing the Hebrew canon; most scholars now reject the idea of a formal council.
event · high
Great Fire of RomeFire of July 64; Tacitus says Nero blamed and executed Christians, the first recorded Roman action against them.
event · high
Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)Roman capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple under Titus, transforming both Judaism and the Jesus movement.
event · medium
Claudius' expulsion of Jews from RomeSuetonius reports Claudius expelled Jews 'at the instigation of Chrestus'; often dated 49 and linked with Acts 18:2.
event · high
Bar Kokhba RevoltJewish revolt of 132-136 crushed by Hadrian; Jerusalem became Aelia Capitolina and Jews were barred from it.
event · undated
Persecution in LyonMob violence and executions of Christians at Lyon and Vienne in 177, described in a letter preserved by Eusebius.
event · high
Scillitan MartyrsTwelve Christians executed at Carthage in 180; their trial record is the oldest dated Latin Christian document.
event · high
Decian persecutionEmpire-wide demand to sacrifice (250); many complied, producing the 'lapsed' controversy; Origen was tortured.
event · undated
Valerian persecution (257-260)Edicts targeting clergy and Christian property; Cyprian and Sixtus II were executed in 258.
event · undated
Edict of Gallienus (260)Gallienus ended his father's persecution and restored church property, inaugurating forty years of peace.
event · high
Diocletianic PersecutionLast and most severe Roman persecution, beginning with the destruction of the Nicomedia church in 303.
event · high
Edict of SerdicaGalerius' 311 edict permitting Christians to exist and assemble.
event · high
Battle of the Milvian BridgeConstantine's victory over Maxentius (312), linked by Lactantius and Eusebius to a vision or dream of a Christian sign.
event · high
Edict of MilanAgreement of Constantine and Licinius granting freedom of worship and restoring church property.
event · undated
Dedication of Constantinople (330)Constantine's refoundation of Byzantium as his capital, dedicated 11 May 330.
event · high
Christianization of ArmeniaAdoption of Christianity by the Armenian king, traditionally 301, often dated c. 314 by historians.
event · low
Christianization of the Kingdom of IberiaConversion of King Mirian III of Iberia (c. 330s), traditionally credited to Nino.
event · undated
Gothic ChristianitySpread of Homoian Christianity among the Goths after Wulfila's mission; most Goths remained Homoian into the 6th century.
event · high
Edict of ThessalonicaEdict of 380 making Nicene Christianity, as held by the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, the faith of the empire.
event · undated
Altar of Victory controversy (382-384)Removal of the Senate's Altar of Victory and Symmachus' plea to restore it, answered by Ambrose.
event · undated
Persecution of pagans under Theodosius ISeries of laws banning sacrifice and temple visits, later read as the end of public paganism.
event · undated
Destruction of the Serapeum (391/392)Destruction of Alexandria's great temple of Serapis by Christians under Theophilus.
event · high
Massacre of ThessalonicaKilling of thousands of citizens in 390, after which Ambrose required Theodosius to do public penance.
event · undated
Murder of Hypatia (415)Hypatia's killing by a Christian mob in March 415, a lasting symbol in debates about religion and learning.
event · high
Sack of Rome (410)Visigothic sack of Rome under Alaric, which prompted Augustine's City of God.
event · undated
Vandal capture of Carthage (439)Homoian Vandals took Carthage in 439 and at times persecuted Nicene clergy; Augustine died during the siege of Hippo (430).
event · high
Fall of the Western Roman EmpireDeposition of the last western emperor in 476, a conventional end of the western empire.
event · undated
Baptism of ClovisBaptism of the Frankish king as a Catholic at Reims, dated variously 496-508.
event · undated
Closure of the Athens school (529)Justinian's 529 measures against pagan teachers, traditionally read as closing the Athenian school.
event · undated
Dedication of Hagia Sophia (537)Justinian's great church dedicated in December 537.
event · high
Plague of JustinianBubonic plague pandemic from 541, described by Procopius and Evagrius.
event · undated
Nubian missions (540s-580s)Rival Miaphysite and Chalcedonian missions converted the Nubian kingdoms of Nobadia, Makuria and Alodia.
event · undated
Gregorian missionMission sent by Gregory the Great, landing in Kent in 597 under Augustine of Canterbury.
event · undated
Fall of Jerusalem (614)Persian capture of Jerusalem in 614 and removal of the True Cross; echoed in Qur'an 30:2-5.
event · high
HijrahMuhammad's emigration from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) in 622, the start of the Islamic calendar.
event · undated
Death of Muhammad (632)Death of Muhammad in Medina in 632; Abu Bakr became the first caliph.
event · high
Battle of the YarmukArab victory over Byzantine forces in 636 that opened Syria to the early caliphate.
event · high
First Muslim conquest of JerusalemSurrender of Jerusalem, negotiated by Sophronius, to the caliph Umar (637/638).
event · high
Arab conquest of EgyptArab conquest of Byzantine Egypt (639-642) under Amr ibn al-As.
event · high
Muslim conquest of PersiaConquest of the Sasanian empire (633-651); the Church of the East continued under Muslim rule.
event · undated
Uthmanic codexIslamic tradition credits Uthman (c. 650) with sending a standard Qur'an text to the main cities.
event · undated
Oxyrhynchus PapyriExcavation of the Oxyrhynchus rubbish mounds yielding the Greek Thomas fragments and many NT papyri.
event · undated
Tischendorf at Sinai (1844, 1859)Constantin von Tischendorf's removal of Codex Sinaiticus leaves from Saint Catherine's Monastery (1844 and 1859); the circumstances remain contested.
event · low
Dura-Europos churchYale-French excavation of the earliest securely identified house-church (c. 240s).
event · undated
Megiddo prison mosaic (2005)Discovery at Kefar Othnay of a 3rd-century Christian prayer hall mosaic naming 'God Jesus Christ'.
event · undated
Publication of Codex Tchacos (2006)National Geographic's 2006 publication of the Gospel of Judas from Codex Tchacos, followed by a scholarly debate over the translation.
event · undated
Pilate stoneLimestone block from Caesarea naming Pontius Pilate as prefect of Judea.
event · undated
Caiaphas ossuaryOssuary inscribed 'Joseph son of Caiaphas' found in Jerusalem in 1990.
library · low
Library of AlexandriaHellenistic royal library whose decline was gradual; popular stories blaming Christians or the Arabs for a single destruction are disputed.
library · undated
Saint Catherine's MonasteryJustinianic monastery (548-565) with one of the oldest working libraries, home of Syriac Sinaiticus and once Codex Sinaiticus.
library · high
Vatican LibraryPapal library (formally founded 1475) holding Codex Vaticanus and many patristic manuscripts; digitized at DigiVatLib.
library · high
Chester Beatty LibraryDublin museum-library holding the Chester Beatty biblical papyri (P45, P46, P47) and Manichaean codices.
library · high
Bodmer LibrarySwiss library holding the Bodmer Papyri (P66, P72, P75) and Codex Visionum.
library · high
Morgan Library & MuseumNew York library holding the Hamuli Coptic manuscripts.
person · medium
Mary, mother of JesusMother of Jesus in the gospels and Acts; later the focus of the Theotokos debate (431) and the one woman named in the Qur'an (Sura 19).
person · low
Mary MagdaleneGalilean follower of Jesus named in all four gospels as a witness to the crucifixion and empty tomb; a leading figure in the Gospel of Mary and other later texts.
person · medium
John the BaptistJewish prophet who baptized in the Jordan and baptized Jesus; Josephus also reports his execution by Herod Antipas. Honored as Yahya in the Qur'an.
person · medium
Saint StephenOne of the Seven chosen in Acts 6 for the Greek-speaking believers; Acts presents his stoning as the first Christian martyrdom.
person · low
BarnabasCypriot Levite and early Jerusalem believer who sponsored Paul and travelled with him from Antioch; later split with Paul (Acts 15).
person · low
SilasJerusalem prophet and Paul's companion on the second journey; named as co-sender of 1 and 2 Thessalonians.
person · high
Saint TimothyPaul's younger co-worker from Lystra, co-sender of several letters; the Pastoral Epistles are addressed to him, though their Pauline authorship is widely doubted.
person · low
Saint TitusGentile co-worker of Paul whom Paul took to Jerusalem uncircumcised (Gal 2); addressee of the Letter to Titus.
person · low
ApollosAlexandrian Jewish believer and eloquent teacher in Ephesus and Corinth (Acts 18; 1 Cor 1-4); sometimes proposed as author of Hebrews.
person · undated
Priscilla and AquilaJewish-Christian couple expelled from Rome under Claudius, Paul's co-workers in Corinth and Ephesus who hosted a house church.
person · low
Phoebe (biblical figure)Named by Paul in Romans 16:1-2 as diakonos of the church at Cenchreae and his patron; probably the letter's carrier.
person · high
Junia (New Testament person)Greeted in Romans 16:7 as 'prominent among the apostles'; whether the name is female (Junia) or male (Junias) was long debated, and most scholars now read it as female.
person · low
Lydia of ThyatiraDealer in purple cloth from Thyatira whose household Acts 16 describes as Paul's first converts at Philippi.
person · high
Luke the EvangelistTraditional author of the Gospel of Luke and Acts; Paul's letters name a Luke among his companions, though the identification is traditional.
person · low
Philip the EvangelistOne of the Seven in Acts 6; preached in Samaria, baptized an Ethiopian official, and settled at Caesarea with four prophesying daughters.
person · low
Simeon of JerusalemAccording to Hegesippus (via Eusebius), a cousin of Jesus who led the Jerusalem church after James and was martyred under Trajan.
person · high
Pontius PilateRoman prefect of Judea (c. 26-36) who ordered Jesus' crucifixion; attested by Josephus, Philo, Tacitus and the Pilate Stone from Caesarea.
person · low
CaiaphasHigh priest in Jerusalem (c. 18-36) who, in the gospels, presided over the hearing against Jesus; an ossuary inscribed with the family name was found in 1990.
person · high
Herod AntipasTetrarch of Galilee and Perea (4 BCE-39 CE) who executed John the Baptist and appears in Luke's passion narrative.
person · high
Herod AgrippaKing of Judea (41-44) who, in Acts 12, executed James son of Zebedee and imprisoned Peter.
person · low
GamalielPharisaic teacher in the Sanhedrin who, in Acts 5, counsels tolerance toward the apostles; Acts 22 names him as Paul's teacher.
person · high
NeroRoman emperor (54-68) whom Tacitus says blamed Christians for the fire of Rome in 64; tradition places Peter's and Paul's deaths under him.
person · high
DomitianEmperor (81-96) whom later Christian writers remembered as a persecutor; the scale of any Domitianic persecution is debated.
person · high
TrajanEmperor (98-117) whose rescript to Pliny set the policy that Christians should not be hunted out but punished if accused and unrepentant.
person · high
HadrianEmperor (117-138) who refounded Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina; the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-136) followed.
person · high
Marcus AureliusPhilosopher-emperor (161-180) under whom the martyrdoms at Lyon (177) and of Justin occurred; addressee of several apologies.
person · high
DeciusEmperor (249-251) whose universal sacrifice edict (250) produced the first empire-wide crisis for Christians and the problem of the lapsed.
person · low
Valerian (emperor)Emperor (253-260) whose edicts of 257-258 targeted clergy (Cyprian was executed); captured by the Persian king Shapur I.
person · high
DiocletianEmperor (284-305) who began the Great Persecution in 303.
person · high
GaleriusCo-emperor and chief driver of the Great Persecution, who issued the Edict of Toleration at Serdica in 311 shortly before his death.
person · medium
LiciniusEastern emperor who agreed the 'Edict of Milan' policy with Constantine in 313 and was later defeated by him (324).
person · medium
Helena, mother of Constantine IMother of Constantine whose pilgrimage to Palestine (c. 326-328) was linked by later tradition to the finding of the True Cross.
person · high
GratianWestern emperor (367-383) who removed the Altar of Victory from the Senate house and gave up the title pontifex maximus.
person · high
ValensEastern emperor (364-378) who favored the Homoian party; killed by the Goths at Adrianople in 378.
person · high
Justinian IEmperor (527-565) who codified Roman law, built Hagia Sophia, closed pagan teaching at Athens, and convened Constantinople II (553).
person · medium
Theodora (wife of Justinian I)Empress and Justinian's partner in rule who protected Miaphysite leaders and, per John of Ephesus, backed missions to Nubia.
person · high
Zeno (emperor)Emperor (474-491) who issued the Henotikon (482) to reconcile Chalcedonians and Miaphysites, prompting the Acacian schism with Rome.
person · medium
HeracliusEmperor (610-641) who defeated Persia and restored the True Cross, promoted Monoenergism/Monothelitism, and lost Syria and Egypt to the Arab conquests.
person · high
Khosrow IISasanian king (590-628) whose armies took Jerusalem in 614; his court included Christian figures such as his wife Shirin.
person · high
Shapur IISasanian king (309-379) under whom Christians in Persia suffered prolonged persecution, including Simeon bar Sabbae.
person · high
Hegesippus (chronicler)Second-century writer of 'Memoirs' known only via Eusebius; source for traditions about James and Jesus' relatives.
person · low
Quadratus of AthensEarliest known Christian apologist, said by Eusebius to have addressed Hadrian; one fragment survives.
person · low
Aristides of AthensAthenian apologist whose Apology survives in Syriac, Armenian and a Greek reworking inside the Barlaam and Josaphat romance.
person · low
Dionysius of CorinthBishop of Corinth (c. 170) whose letters to other churches Eusebius summarizes; an early witness to inter-church correspondence.
person · medium
Aristo of PellaSecond-century writer credited with a lost dialogue between a Christian Jew, Jason, and a Jew, Papiscus.
person · low
Theodotus of ByzantiumLeather-worker excommunicated by Victor of Rome (c. 190) for teaching that Jesus was a man empowered by the Spirit at baptism.
person · low
NoetusTeacher from Smyrna, opposed by Hippolytus, who held that the Father himself was born and suffered (patripassianism).
person · low
PraxeasMonarchian teacher in Rome known only from Tertullian's Against Praxeas; possibly a nickname rather than a real name.
person · low
SabelliusThird-century teacher in Rome whose name became the label 'Sabellianism' for modalist theology.
person · high
Pope Victor IBishop of Rome (c. 189-199) from Africa who tried to excommunicate the Quartodeciman Asian churches; rebuked by Irenaeus.
person · high
Pope Callixtus IFormer slave who became bishop of Rome (c. 217-222); Hippolytus attacked his leniency and theology.
person · low
PantaenusStoic-trained teacher at Alexandria and teacher of Clement; Eusebius reports a mission to 'India'.
person · medium
Sextus Julius AfricanusChristian chronographer and polymath (c. 160-240) whose Chronographiae synchronized biblical and pagan history.
person · high
Methodius of OlympusBishop and writer (d. c. 311) whose Symposium praises virginity and who criticized Origen on the resurrection body.
person · medium
Pamphilus of CaesareaPresbyter who built up Origen's library at Caesarea, co-wrote an Apology for Origen with Eusebius and was martyred in 309/310.
person · medium
Lucian of AntiochAntiochene teacher and biblical scholar martyred in 312; several later 'Arian' leaders called themselves his students.
person · high
Hilary of PoitiersBishop of Poitiers (d. 367) exiled to Phrygia, whose On the Trinity brought eastern anti-Arian debate into Latin.
person · medium
Didymus the BlindBlind Alexandrian teacher (c. 313-398) admired by Jerome and Rufinus; condemned posthumously as an Origenist in 553; papyri from Tura (1941) restored many works.
person · medium
Apollinaris of LaodiceaNicene bishop of Laodicea in Syria (d. c. 390) who taught that the divine Logos took the place of a human mind in Christ; condemned in 381.
person · medium
Epiphanius of SalamisPalestinian-born bishop of Salamis in Cyprus (d. 403), author of the Panarion, a catalogue of 80 'heresies'.
person · high
Diodorus of TarsusAntiochene teacher of Theodore of Mopsuestia and John Chrysostom; posthumously suspected as a forerunner of Nestorius.
person · medium
Evagrius PonticusMonk and writer (345-399) in the Egyptian desert whose teaching on prayer and the eight 'thoughts' shaped eastern and western spirituality.
person · medium
Tyrannius RufinusMonk and translator (d. 411) who rendered Origen and Eusebius into Latin and quarrelled with Jerome over Origen.
person · medium
Melania the ElderRoman aristocrat (d. c. 410) who founded a monastery on the Mount of Olives with Rufinus.
person · high
Paula of RomeRoman widow (347-404) and Jerome's patron who founded monasteries in Bethlehem.
person · high
Macrina the YoungerElder sister of Basil and Gregory of Nyssa who led an ascetic household in Pontus; Gregory's Life and On the Soul and Resurrection portray her as a teacher.
person · high
Olympias the DeaconessWealthy deaconess of Constantinople (d. 408) and correspondent of John Chrysostom.
person · high
Melania the YoungerGranddaughter of Melania the Elder who liquidated a vast fortune and founded monasteries in Jerusalem (d. 439).
person · low
Egeria (pilgrim)Western woman whose travel letter (c. 381-384) describes Sinai, Edessa and the Jerusalem liturgy.
person · high
Marcella of RomeRoman widow who led an ascetic and scripture-study circle on the Aventine; Jerome's correspondent.
person · high
Theophilus I of AlexandriaPatriarch (385-412) who oversaw the destruction of the Serapeum (391/392), turned against Origenist monks and deposed Chrysostom at the Synod of the Oak.
person · medium
HypatiaNeoplatonist philosopher and mathematician killed by a Christian mob in 415, during conflict between the prefect Orestes and Cyril.
person · high
SynesiusStudent of Hypatia who became bishop of Ptolemais (c. 410) while keeping his Neoplatonist views.
person · high
Martin of ToursSoldier-turned-monk and bishop of Tours (d. 397) whose Life by Sulpicius Severus made him a model saint of Gaul.
person · medium
Sulpicius SeverusAquitanian writer (d. c. 425) of the Life of Martin and a Chronicle that is a key source for the Priscillian affair.
person · high
John CassianMonk (d. c. 435) who brought Egyptian desert teaching to Gaul in his Institutes and Conferences.
person · high
Paulinus of NolaSenator-turned-ascetic and bishop (d. 431) whose letters and poems on Saint Felix are a window on Latin aristocratic Christianity.
person · medium
PrudentiusSpanish Christian Latin poet (348-after 405) of the Psychomachia and hymns to martyrs.
person · low
Vincent of LérinsMonk of Lérins whose Commonitorium (434) defined orthodoxy as what is believed 'everywhere, always, by all'.
person · medium
Prosper of AquitaineLay theologian (d. c. 455) who defended Augustine on grace and later served Leo I; his Chronicle records Palladius' mission to Ireland in 431.
person · medium
OrosiusIberian priest (d. after 418) whose Seven Books of History against the Pagans, written at Augustine's urging, was a widely used medieval history.
person · medium
Socrates of ConstantinopleLay lawyer (c. 380-after 439) whose Ecclesiastical History continues Eusebius from 305 to 439.
person · medium
SozomenPalestinian lawyer who wrote an Ecclesiastical History (to c. 425) drawing on Socrates.
person · medium
TheodoretBishop of Cyrrhus (d. c. 466), historian and Antiochene theologian; his writings against Cyril were condemned in 553 (Three Chapters).
person · high
Ibas of EdessaBishop of Edessa (d. 457) whose letter to Mari the Persian was one of the Three Chapters condemned in 553.
person · high
RabbulaBishop of Edessa (411-435) who backed Cyril against Nestorius and is credited, perhaps wrongly, with revising the Syriac gospels.
person · medium
Philoxenus of MabbugMiaphysite bishop of Mabbug (d. 523) who sponsored the Philoxenian Syriac version of the New Testament (508).
person · low
Pseudo-Dionysius the AreopagiteAnonymous author (c. 500) who wrote under the name of Paul's Athenian convert; his Celestial Hierarchy and Mystical Theology shaped medieval thought.
person · low
BoethiusRoman statesman executed by Theodoric (c. 524); author of The Consolation of Philosophy and theological tractates.
person · medium
CassiodorusOfficial of Ostrogothic Italy who founded the Vivarium monastery (c. 554) and its library; his Institutions set a reading program for monks.
person · high
Benedict of NursiaItalian monk (c. 480-547) traditionally credited with the Rule of Benedict and the founding of Monte Cassino.
person · medium
Pope Gregory IBishop of Rome (590-604) who sent Augustine to Kent (597) and wrote the Pastoral Rule, Dialogues and Moralia on Job.
person · high
Gregory of ToursBishop of Tours (573-594) whose Ten Books of Histories is the main source for Merovingian Gaul.
person · medium
Isidore of SevilleBishop of Seville (d. 636) whose Etymologies became the standard encyclopedia of the Latin Middle Ages.
person · medium
Clovis IFrankish king whose baptism (traditionally c. 496-508) as a Catholic, not a Homoian, shaped western Europe.
person · high
ColumbaIrish monk (521-597) who founded Iona in 563; Adomnán's Life is the main source.
person · medium
ColumbanusIrish monk (d. 615) who founded Luxeuil and Bobbio and challenged Frankish bishops over the Easter date.
person · medium
Saint PatrickRomano-British missionary bishop in Ireland whose Confessio and Letter to Coroticus are the only secure sources; his dates are uncertain.
person · medium
Brigid of KildareIrish abbess (d. c. 525) of Kildare whose early Lives mix history and legend.
person · high
Maximus the ConfessorMonk and theologian (c. 580-662) who opposed Monothelitism, helped at the Lateran Synod of 649 and was mutilated and exiled.
person · high
Sophronius of JerusalemPatriarch of Jerusalem (634-638) who opposed Monoenergism and negotiated the city's surrender to the caliph Umar (637/638); his 634 Christmas sermon mentions the 'Saracens'.
person · medium
John MoschusMonk (d. 619) whose Spiritual Meadow collects stories from monasteries across the eastern Mediterranean on the eve of the Arab conquests.
person · high
Romanos the MelodistSyrian-born Greek hymnographer (6th c.) whose kontakia, influenced by Syriac poetry, are high points of Byzantine liturgical verse.
person · low
John ClimacusAbbot of Sinai (d. c. 649) whose Ladder of Divine Ascent became a classic of Orthodox spirituality.
person · medium
John PhiloponusAlexandrian Christian philosopher (c. 490-570) who critiqued Aristotle's physics and was later condemned for 'tritheism'.
person · medium
ProcopiusHistorian of Justinian's wars and buildings, and author of the hostile Secret History.
person · low
Cosmas IndicopleustesAlexandrian merchant whose Christian Topography (c. 550) reports Christians in Socotra, Sri Lanka and India.
person · high
UlfilasGothic bishop (c. 311-383) consecrated c. 341, who created the Gothic alphabet and translated the Bible.
person · undated
Ezana of AxumKing of Aksum whose coins and inscriptions shift from pagan symbols to the cross in the mid-4th century, after the mission of Frumentius.
person · high
FrumentiusSyrian-born Christian consecrated by Athanasius as first bishop of Aksum (c. 340s), per Rufinus.
person · medium
Mesrop MashtotsArmenian monk who created the Armenian alphabet c. 405 and led the translation of the Bible into Armenian.
person · high
Gregory the IlluminatorMissionary credited by tradition with the conversion of King Tiridates III and Armenia in the early 4th century.
person · low
Tiridates III of ArmeniaKing of Armenia who adopted Christianity, traditionally in 301 (many scholars prefer c. 314).
person · high
Saint NinoWoman credited by Rufinus and Georgian tradition with converting King Mirian III of Iberia (Georgia) c. 330s.
person · high
BardaisanEdessene philosopher-poet (154-222) whose circle produced the Book of the Laws of Countries; later Syriac writers branded him a heretic.
person · low
Abgar VKing of Edessa who, per Eusebius and the Doctrine of Addai, corresponded with Jesus; the legend is generally regarded as later.
person · low
Addai of EdessaLegendary apostle of Edessa in the Doctrine of Addai, linked with Thaddaeus of the Seventy.
person · medium
Simeon StylitesSyrian ascetic (d. 459) who lived on a pillar near Aleppo for decades, drawing pilgrims including Arab nomads.
person · low
Shemon bar SabbaeBishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon executed under Shapur II (c. 341-344); his acts are among the earliest Persian martyr texts.
person · low
Aba IZoroastrian convert who became Catholicos of the Church of the East (540-552) and reformed its discipline.
person · low
John of EphesusMiaphysite bishop and historian (d. c. 588) whose Ecclesiastical History reports Justinian-era missions and the Nubian conversions.
person · high
Severus of AntiochPatriarch of Antioch (512-518) and leading Miaphysite theologian, deposed under Justin I.
person · low
Julian of HalicarnassusMiaphysite bishop who taught that Christ's body was incorruptible before the resurrection ('aphthartodocetism'), opposed by Severus.
person · medium
PhiloJewish philosopher (c. 20 BCE-c. 50 CE) whose allegorical reading of scripture and Logos theology deeply influenced Christian Alexandria.
person · low
Simon bar KokhbaLeader of the Jewish revolt of 132-136; Justin says his followers punished Christians who would not join.
person · low
Yohanan ben ZakkaiRabbinic sage credited by tradition with re-founding Jewish learning at Yavneh after 70.
person · high
Judah ha-NasiPatriarch credited with compiling the Mishnah (c. 200).
person · high
PlotinusFounder of Neoplatonism (c. 204-270) whose Enneads, edited by Porphyry, shaped Augustine and Greek Christian thought.
person · medium
LibaniusPagan rhetorician of Antioch (d. c. 393), teacher of many Christians and defender of temples.
person · high
Quintus Aurelius SymmachusRoman senator whose 384 plea to restore the Altar of Victory was answered by Ambrose.
person · low
AmbrosiasterName given to the anonymous author of a Latin commentary on Paul's letters (c. 370s), long attributed to Ambrose.
person · low
CaelestiusAssociate of Pelagius condemned at Carthage in 411/412 and repeatedly afterward.
person · high
Gaius Marius VictorinusRoman rhetor whose late conversion (c. 355) Augustine recounts; he wrote Neoplatonic-inflected anti-Arian treatises.
person · high
Saint MonicaMother of Augustine, portrayed in the Confessions; died at Ostia in 387.
person · low
Pope Sylvester IBishop of Rome (314-335) during Constantine's reign; the later Donation of Constantine legend centers on him.
person · high
Pope Julius IBishop of Rome (337-352) who received the exiled Athanasius and Marcellus and asserted a right to review eastern depositions.
person · medium
Pope LiberiusBishop of Rome (352-366) exiled by Constantius II; his later signing of a compromise creed is debated.
person · high
Pope SiriciusBishop of Rome (384-399) whose letter to Himerius of Tarragona is the earliest surviving papal decretal.
person · low
Pope Innocent IBishop of Rome (401-417) during the Gothic sack; he confirmed African condemnations of Pelagius.
person · low
Pope Celestine IBishop of Rome (422-432) who backed Cyril against Nestorius and, per Prosper, sent Palladius to Ireland.
person · high
Pope Gelasius IBishop of Rome (492-496) known for the 'two powers' letter to Emperor Anastasius; the Decretum Gelasianum on canon is attributed to him but later.
person · high
Pope VigiliusBishop of Rome (537-555) brought to Constantinople by Justinian and pressured over the Three Chapters.
person · medium
Pope Honorius IBishop of Rome (625-638) whose letter appearing to accept 'one will' led to his condemnation at Constantinople III (681).
person · high
Pope Martin IBishop of Rome (649-655) who held the Lateran Synod against Monothelitism and died in exile in Crimea.
person · high
Eusebius of VercelliBishop exiled in 355 for refusing to condemn Athanasius; associated with the Codex Vercellensis.
person · low
Lucifer of CagliariRigorist Nicene bishop exiled in 355 whose followers refused communion with bishops who had compromised.
person · high
Macedonius I of ConstantinopleBishop of Constantinople whose name was later attached to the Pneumatomachian ('Macedonian') party.
person · low
TheclaHeroine of the 2nd-century Acts of Paul and Thecla whose shrine at Seleucia was a major pilgrimage site.
person · low
BlandinaEnslaved woman among the martyrs of Lyon (177) described in the letter preserved by Eusebius.
person · high
Perpetua and FelicityYoung noblewoman and enslaved woman martyred in Carthage in 203; the Passion includes a prison diary attributed to Perpetua.
person · medium
Faltonia Betitia ProbaRoman poet whose Cento recast Virgil's lines to tell biblical history.
person · low
Aelia EudociaEmpress, wife of Theodosius II, poet of Homeric centos on Christ, who later lived in Jerusalem.
person · low
Ephraim of AntiochChalcedonian patriarch of Antioch (527-545) and theologian of the Justinianic period.
person · low
Khadija bint KhuwaylidFirst wife of Muhammad and, in Islamic tradition, the first to accept his message; her cousin Waraqa was a Christian.
person · medium
Abu BakrMuhammad's companion and first caliph (632-634).
person · medium
UmarSecond caliph (634-644) under whom Syria, Jerusalem, Egypt and Iraq were conquered; later tradition attributes a covenant with Jerusalem's Christians.
person · high
UthmanThird caliph (644-656), credited by Islamic tradition with standardizing the Qur'an text.
person · high
AliMuhammad's cousin and son-in-law, fourth caliph (656-661).
person · high
Salman the PersianCompanion of Muhammad whose traditional biography describes a journey from Zoroastrianism through Christian teachers to Islam.
person · low
BahiraChristian monk who, in Islamic tradition, recognized the young Muhammad; Christian polemic recast him as Sergius.
person · medium
John of DamascusDamascene official-turned-monk (d. c. 749) whose chapter on the 'Ishmaelites' is an early Christian treatment of Islam.
person · low
Thomas the PresbyterSyriac chronicler whose note for 634 is often cited as the earliest non-Muslim mention of Muhammad by name.
person · low
SebeosArmenian history (c. 660s) attributed to Sebeos, an early outside account of Muhammad and the conquests.
place · undated
MagdalaGalilean fishing town on the Sea of Galilee; excavations since 2009 uncovered a 1st-century synagogue.
place · high
TiberiasCity founded by Herod Antipas c. 20 CE; later a center of rabbinic learning.
place · undated
BethsaidaFishing village named in the gospels as home of Peter, Andrew and Philip; its location (et-Tell or el-Araj) is debated.
place · undated
CanaVillage of John's wedding miracle; candidate sites include Kafr Kanna and Khirbet Qana.
place · undated
Mount TaborMountain in Galilee identified by 4th-century tradition with the Transfiguration.
place · undated
Sebastia, NablusHerodian city where Acts places Philip's preaching and Simon Magus; later linked with John the Baptist's tomb.
place · low
JerichoOasis city near the Jordan featuring in gospel stories (Zacchaeus, Bartimaeus).
place · undated
MasadaHerodian fortress where the last rebels held out until 73/74, per Josephus.
place · high
YavneCoastal town where rabbinic tradition locates the post-70 academy of Yohanan ben Zakkai.
place · undated
GethsemaneOlive garden at the foot of the Mount of Olives where the gospels place Jesus' arrest.
place · high
Church of the Holy SepulchreConstantinian basilica (dedicated 335) over the traditional site of the crucifixion and tomb.
place · undated
Mount of OlivesRidge east of Jerusalem with Constantine's Eleona church and later monasteries.
place · high
Church of the NativityBasilica in Bethlehem first built under Constantine over the cave of Jesus' birth; rebuilt by Justinian.
place · low
Gaza CityImportant late antique city whose Marneion temple was destroyed in 402; seat of a notable Christian rhetorical school.
place · undated
Megiddo church (Israel)Site near Megiddo prison of a 3rd-century Christian prayer hall with mosaic inscriptions.
place · high
MadabaTown in Jordan whose 6th-century mosaic floor map shows Jerusalem and the Holy Land.
place · undated
JerashDecapolis city with more than a dozen Byzantine churches.
place · undated
Mount NeboMountain traditionally linked to Moses' death; Egeria visited its church.
place · undated
Mount SinaiPeak identified by 4th-century monks and pilgrims with the biblical mountain of the Law.
place · undated
Nitrian DesertEarly monastic settlement southwest of Alexandria founded by Amoun (c. 330).
place · undated
Wadi El NatrunDesert valley where the Scetis monasteries, including St Macarius and the Syrian Monastery, still stand.
place · undated
Philae temple complexNile island temple of Isis, closed under Justinian (c. 535-537); its chapels were reused as churches.
place · undated
AntinoöpolisCity founded by Hadrian with major late antique Christian remains and papyri.
place · high
Cyrene, LibyaGreek city in Libya; Simon of Cyrene carried Jesus' cross, and Synesius was a later son of the region.
place · undated
RavennaWestern imperial and Ostrogothic capital whose 5th-6th-century churches preserve major mosaics.
place · undated
NolaCampanian town where Paulinus built a shrine complex to Saint Felix at Cimitile.
place · undated
Lérins IslandsIsland monastery founded by Honoratus c. 410, a nursery of Gallic bishops.
place · high
MarseillePort city where Cassian founded monasteries c. 415.
place · undated
ToursGallic city of Martin's bishopric and shrine, later Gregory's see.
place · undated
PoitiersGallic city of Hilary; nearby Ligugé is Martin's first monastery.
place · undated
ReimsCity where Bishop Remigius baptized Clovis.
place · high
Monte CassinoHilltop abbey traditionally founded by Benedict c. 529.
place · undated
Toledo, SpainVisigothic royal capital and seat of eighteen councils.
place · undated
SevilleCity of Leander and Isidore, leading bishops of Visigothic Spain.
place · undated
SalonaCapital of Dalmatia near Diocletian's palace, with early Christian cemeteries.
place · undated
NišBirthplace of Constantine (c. 272).
place · undated
CyzicusCity on the Sea of Marmara whose bishops were central in 4th-century debates.
place · undated
SivasCity of the Forty Martyrs (c. 320), honored by Basil.
place · undated
MalatyaRoman legionary base and bishopric in eastern Anatolia.
place · undated
DiyarbakırFortified city on the Tigris, home of John of Ephesus; besieged by Persia in 359 and 502.
place · undated
ManbijSyrian city of Philoxenus' see.
place · undated
CyrrhusBishopric of Theodoret in northern Syria.
place · high
Apamea, SyriaMajor Syrian city with a Neoplatonist school and an early cathedral.
place · low
Church of Saint Simeon StylitesHuge pilgrimage complex built c. 476-490 around Simeon's pillar.
place · undated
Dead CitiesHundreds of abandoned late antique villages in northwest Syria with well-preserved churches.
place · high
Veh-ArdashirSite near Seleucia-Ctesiphon of the cathedral church of the Catholicos.
place · high
Etchmiadzin CathedralCathedral at Vagharshapat traditionally founded after Armenia's conversion.
place · high
Hagia SophiaJustinian's great church in Constantinople (537), later a mosque, museum and mosque again.
place · undated
Catacombs of RomeUnderground Christian cemeteries; the Callixtus catacomb holds the crypt of 3rd-century bishops.
place · high
Old St. Peter's BasilicaConstantinian basilica over the Vatican shrine of Peter, replaced in the 16th century.
place · undated
Archbasilica of Saint John LateranCathedral of Rome, built by Constantine as the bishop's church.
place · low
Santa Maria MaggioreRoman basilica rebuilt under Sixtus III after 431 with mosaics of Mary's role in the story of Christ.
place · undated
Aelia CapitolinaHadrian's Roman colony built on Jerusalem's ruins after 135.
place · low
CtesiphonSasanian capital whose Taq Kasra arch still stands; seat of the Catholicos of the East.
text · low
DidacheShort church manual (late 1st or early 2nd c.) on the 'two ways', baptism, fasting, the eucharist and itinerant prophets; rediscovered in 1873 in a Constantinople codex.
text · undated
First Epistle of ClementLetter from the Roman church to Corinth (usually dated c. 95-97) urging restoration of deposed presbyters.
text · undated
Second Epistle of ClementMid-2nd-century sermon, the oldest surviving Christian homily outside the NT, later attached to Clement's name.
text · undated
Epistle of BarnabasEarly 2nd-century treatise reading the Jewish scriptures allegorically; included in Codex Sinaiticus.
text · undated
The Shepherd of HermasRoman apocalypse of visions, mandates and similitudes about repentance, very popular in the 2nd-4th centuries and included in Codex Sinaiticus.
text · low
Epistle to DiognetusAnonymous apology describing Christians as 'the soul of the world'; known from one manuscript destroyed in 1870.
text · undated
Letters of IgnatiusSeven letters (middle recension) to churches in Asia and Rome urging unity under bishop, presbyters and deacons; authenticity and date still debated.
text · low
Epistle of Polycarp to the PhilippiansLetter of Polycarp to Philippi that quotes many NT writings and mentions Ignatius' letters.
text · undated
Martyrdom of PolycarpLetter from Smyrna describing Polycarp's execution, the oldest martyrdom account outside the NT.
text · undated
First Apology of Justin MartyrDefense addressed to Antoninus Pius (c. 155) containing the earliest description of Sunday worship and baptism.
text · undated
Dialogue with TryphoLong debate with a Jew named Trypho over the scriptures and the messiahship of Jesus (c. 160).
text · low
Against HeresiesFive books (c. 180) against Valentinians and others, a key witness to the four-gospel canon and apostolic succession.
text · undated
Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching (Irenaeus)Short summary of Christian teaching by Irenaeus, rediscovered in Armenian in 1904.
text · undated
Muratorian fragmentLatin list of NT books found in an 8th-century manuscript; dated by most to c. 200 Rome, by some to the 4th century.
text · high
ApologeticusTertullian's defense of Christians (197), with the famous line about the blood of martyrs.
text · undated
Prescription against Heretics (Tertullian)Argument that heretics have no right to use the scriptures because they lack apostolic succession.
text · undated
Against Marcion (Tertullian)Five-book refutation, the main source for reconstructing Marcion's gospel and Apostolikon.
text · undated
Refutation of All HeresiesCatalogue of heresies tracing them to Greek philosophy, attributed to Hippolytus (authorship debated); rediscovered on Mount Athos in 1842.
text · undated
Apostolic TraditionChurch order traditionally credited to Hippolytus; its date, unity and authorship are now widely questioned.
text · high
Contra CelsumOrigen's reply (c. 248) to Celsus' True Word, preserving much of the earliest major pagan critique of Christianity.
text · high
HexaplaOrigen's six-column edition of the Hebrew Bible and Greek versions, kept at Caesarea; survives in fragments.
text · undated
On the Unity of the Church (Cyprian)Cyprian's treatise (251) during the Novatianist schism; 'he cannot have God for his father who has not the church for his mother'.
text · undated
Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius)Ten-book history to 324, the foundation of the genre, preserving many lost sources such as Papias and Hegesippus.
text · low
Life of ConstantinePanegyrical biography of Constantine written after 337, including letters and an account of Nicaea.
text · medium
Onomasticon (Eusebius)Gazetteer of biblical place-names with Roman-era locations; a key source for historical geography of Palestine.
text · undated
De mortibus persecutorumLactantius' account of the Great Persecution and the dreadful ends of persecuting emperors, with a text of the 313 Milan letter.
text · medium
Life of Antony (Athanasius)Biography (c. 360) that spread the ideal of desert monasticism across the empire.
text · undated
On the IncarnationClassic short treatise on why the Word became human.
text · undated
39th Festal LetterEaster letter of 367 listing the 27 NT books now standard and warning against apocrypha.
text · high
Nicene CreedCreed adopted at Nicaea (325) with 'homoousios'; the fuller form recited today is associated with Constantinople (381).
text · undated
Apostles' CreedWestern baptismal creed developed from the Old Roman Creed; reached its standard form by about the 8th century.
text · high
Chalcedonian DefinitionStatement of 451 confessing Christ 'in two natures' without confusion or separation; rejected by Miaphysite churches.
text · high
Leo's TomeLeo I's 449 letter to Flavian on Christ's two natures, endorsed at Chalcedon.
text · undated
Third Letter of Cyril to NestoriusCyril's 430 propositions against Nestorius, a lasting point of dispute with Antiochenes.
text · high
Confessions (Augustine)Augustine's prayer-autobiography (c. 397-400) covering his youth, Manichaean years and conversion in Milan.
text · undated
The City of GodTwenty-two books written after the sack of Rome (410) contrasting the earthly and heavenly cities.
text · high
De doctrina ChristianaHandbook on interpreting and teaching scripture, including Augustine's list of canonical books.
text · low
VulgateLatin Bible largely produced or revised by Jerome (c. 382-405), later standard in the West.
text · high
De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)Jerome's 392 catalogue of 135 Christian writers, a key early bibliographic source.
text · undated
Historia ecclesiastica (Rufinus)Latin translation-continuation of Eusebius (c. 402) with stories of Frumentius and Nino.
text · undated
Historia ecclesiastica (Socrates)History from 305 to 439, valued for documents and relative fairness.
text · undated
Historia ecclesiastica (Sozomen)Nine books covering 324-c. 425, with material on monks and Persian Christians.
text · undated
Historia ecclesiastica (Theodoret)Five books from the rise of Arius to 428, written from an Antiochene viewpoint.
text · undated
Historia ecclesiastica (Evagrius)Six books covering 431-594, a key source for Chalcedon's aftermath and the Justinianic plague.
text · undated
Apostolic ConstitutionsLate 4th-century Syrian compilation reworking the Didascalia and Didache, with canons and liturgies.
text · undated
Odes of SolomonCollection of 42 early Christian hymns, probably 2nd century, surviving mainly in Syriac.
text · undated
Acts of ThomasSyriac-origin apocryphal acts of Thomas' mission to India, containing the 'Hymn of the Pearl'.
text · undated
Hymn of the PearlAllegorical poem of a prince sent to Egypt for a pearl, embedded in the Acts of Thomas.
text · undated
Acts of Paul and TheclaPart of the 2nd-century Acts of Paul about Thecla, whom Tertullian notes was used to justify women baptizing.
text · low
Acts of JohnApocryphal acts set in Ephesus, with the 'Hymn of Jesus' and a docetic crucifixion vision.
text · low
Acts of PeterApocryphal acts with Peter's contest with Simon Magus and the 'Quo vadis' story.
text · undated
Gospel of PeterFragmentary passion gospel known from an Akhmim codex (found 1886/87) with a talking cross; mentioned by Serapion of Antioch c. 200.
text · undated
Gospel of NicodemusPassion narrative with the Harrowing of Hell; widely influential in medieval Europe.
text · undated
Gospel of the HebrewsJewish-Christian gospel known only from quotations in Clement, Origen and Jerome.
text · undated
Egerton GospelFragments of an unknown gospel (c. 150-200) bought in 1934; overlaps Johannine and Synoptic material.
text · low
Apocalypse of PeterEarly 2nd-century tour of heaven and hell (distinct from the Nag Hammadi text), listed in the Muratorian fragment.
text · low
Apocalypse of PaulLate 4th-century vision of the afterlife, very influential in the Middle Ages (Dante knew of it).
text · undated
Ascension of IsaiahComposite Jewish-Christian work with Isaiah's martyrdom and a vision of Christ's descent through the heavens.
text · undated
Book of EnochJewish apocalyptic collection (3rd c. BCE-1st c. CE) quoted in Jude and canonical in the Ethiopian church.
text · low
Book of Jubilees2nd-century BCE retelling of Genesis-Exodus in jubilee periods; canonical in the Ethiopian church.
text · undated
Sibylline OraclesJewish and Christian hexameter oracles in the Sibyl's voice, widely cited by Christian apologists.
text · low
Psalms of SolomonEighteen Jewish psalms (1st c. BCE) with a hope for a Davidic messiah.
text · low
Rule of Saint BenedictSixth-century monastic rule that became the standard for western monasteries.
text · low
Sayings of the Desert FathersCollections of sayings of Egyptian monks and nuns, compiled in the 5th-6th centuries.
text · low
Lausiac HistoryPalladius' 419/420 portraits of monks and women ascetics in Egypt and Palestine.
text · undated
Historia monachorum in AegyptoTravelogue of a 394/395 pilgrimage to Egyptian monks, translated into Latin by Rufinus.
text · undated
Pilgrimage of EgeriaLetter-diary of Egeria's pilgrimage (c. 381-384), rediscovered at Arezzo in 1884.
text · low
Itinerarium BurdigalenseEarliest surviving Christian pilgrimage itinerary (333) from Bordeaux to Jerusalem.
text · high
Codex TheodosianusLegal code of 438; Book 16 collects imperial laws on religion, heretics, Jews and pagans.
text · high
Corpus Juris CivilisJustinian's codification of Roman law (529-534) with laws on Christianity, heresy and paganism.
text · undated
Pliny the Younger on ChristiansPliny's c. 112 letter to Trajan describing trials of Christians in Bithynia and Trajan's reply.
text · undated
MishnahCode of Jewish law compiled c. 200 CE, the foundation of the Talmuds.
text · undated
Jerusalem TalmudCommentary on the Mishnah compiled in Galilee c. 400.
text · undated
Babylonian TalmudCommentary on the Mishnah compiled in Sasanian Mesopotamia c. 500-600.
text · undated
Book of StepsAnonymous Syriac collection of 30 discourses on 'upright' and 'perfect' Christians.
text · undated
Demonstrations (Aphrahat)Twenty-three Syriac treatises (337-345) by the 'Persian Sage', with Christian-Jewish debate.
text · undated
Hymns of Ephrem (madrashe)Ephrem's hymn cycles (Faith, Paradise, Nisibis, Nativity, Against Heresies), masterpieces of Syriac poetry.
text · undated
Doctrine of AddaiSyriac account (c. 400) of Abgar's letter to Jesus and Addai's mission to Edessa.
text · low
Chronicle of EdessaShort Syriac chronicle (mid-6th c.) recording events in Edessa including the flood of 201 and its church.
text · low
Doctrina JacobiGreek dialogue set in Carthage in 634 that mentions a 'prophet' appearing among the Saracens, an early outside report.
text · low
Khuzistan ChronicleEast Syriac chronicle (c. 660s) of late Sasanian and early Arab events.
text · low
Chronicle of FredegarFrankish chronicle (7th c.) with a notice of Heraclius and the Arab conquests.
text · low
Sanaa manuscriptQur'an palimpsest found in Sanaa in 1972 whose lower text differs from the standard text; radiocarbon dating points to the 7th century.
text · high
Constitution of MedinaAgreement preserved by Ibn Ishaq among Muhammad, Medina's tribes and Jewish groups; widely accepted as early.
text · undated
Sirat Rasul Allah (Ibn Ishaq)Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad (mid-8th c.), known through Ibn Hisham's edition; key for Bahira, Waraqa and the hijra stories.
text · undated
On Heresies (John of Damascus)John of Damascus' catalogue of heresies; its final chapter on the 'Ishmaelites' is an early Christian reading of Islam.
text · low
Gospel of Pseudo-MatthewLatin infancy gospel (c. 600-625) with the palm-tree miracle also echoed in Qur'an 19.
text · undated
Kebra Nagast14th-century Ge'ez epic linking Ethiopia's kings to Solomon and Sheba; later than the Atlas period but key for Aksum's self-understanding.
text · undated
Liber PontificalisSerial biographies of the bishops of Rome begun in the 6th century; early entries are legendary.
text · undated
Gelasian DecreeLatin list of accepted and rejected books, attributed to Gelasius I but probably 6th-century.
text · undated
Synodicon VetusByzantine summary of councils to the 9th century, useful as an index of synods.
text · low
On the Origin of the WorldNag Hammadi treatise on creation and the archons, related to the Hypostasis of the Archons.
text · undated
Dialogue of the SaviourDialogue of Jesus with Judas, Matthew and Mary, built on sayings traditions.
text · undated
Book of Thomas the ContenderDialogue between Jesus and Judas Thomas on ascetic self-knowledge.
text · low
Apocryphon of JamesLetter attributed to James with secret teaching from the risen Jesus.
text · undated
First Apocalypse of JamesRevelation dialogue between Jesus and James before James' martyrdom; another copy is in Codex Tchacos.
text · undated
The Thunder, Perfect MindParadoxical first-person poem in a female divine voice.
text · undated
Teachings of SilvanusWisdom text close to Alexandrian Christianity, showing the Nag Hammadi codices are not all 'Gnostic'.
text · undated
Sentences of SextusCollection of ethical maxims translated by Rufinus and also found at Nag Hammadi.
person · high
Jacob BaradaeusMiaphysite bishop of Edessa (d. 578) who ordained clergy across the East, giving the Syriac Orthodox church its 'Jacobite' nickname.
place · undated
BaniasSite of Peter's confession in Mark 8; by the 4th century reported to hold a statue thought to be of Jesus.
place · high
NicomediaDiocletian's eastern capital where the Great Persecution began in 303.
text · low
Tripartite TractateLong Valentinian systematic treatise on the Father, the aeons and salvation.
text · low
Treatise on the ResurrectionShort Valentinian letter arguing that believers already share in the resurrection.
text · undated
ZostrianosSethian ascent apocalypse named by Porphyry among texts Plotinus' circle refuted.
text · undated
Trimorphic ProtennoiaSethian text in which Protennoia descends three times; often compared to the John prologue.